Umbria, at the crossroads between north and south and between the Adriatic and the Tyhrrenian Seas, has seen the history of three millennia pass across its lands. Prehistoric remains, conserved largely in the Archaeological Museum in Perugia, reveal a human presence here which goes back as far as the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods. There are flints and arrowheads from the fluvial terraces of the Chiascio and Tevere rivers as well as from the area of Norcia and along the banks of Lake Trasimeno. The fine statuette known as Venus of Trasimeno is from the Upper Palaeolithic period whilst the tomb of Poggio Aquilino near Perugia dates from the Upper Neolithic period. In the burial chambers of Monteleone di Spoleto evidence of burial and cremation from the transitional period between the Bronze and Iron ages has been found.
Around 1000 B.C. a wave of migration brought a group of tribes known as the Oscan-Umbrians to the region. It is thought that their dominion stretched from the Adriatic to the upper and middle regions of the valley on the west bank of the Tevere, perhaps extending as far as the T'yhrrenian Sea. The first settlements grew up at Otricoli, Amelia, Terni, Narni, Todi, Spoleto, Nocera, Foligno, Assisi, Bettona, Gualdo Tadino, Gubbio and Città di Castello.
The people of Perugia rose in arms against the Papal State because of a tax on salt. The uprising was forcefully put under sedation by Paolo III who assigned to the great architect Antonio da Sangallo the task of reconstructing the Rocca Paolina on the ruins of the Baglioni house, which had been razed to the ground. The links with Rome and the Papal state did, however, have the positive effect of bringing illustrious architects to Umbria. From Bologna came Fieravante Fieravanti to work in Magione for the Order of the Cavalieri di Malta and their abbey. Antonio Marchesi came from Florence to work on the church of Madonna delle Lacrime in Trevi whilst Rocco da Vicenza worked in Spello, Foligno and Trevi. The Florentine Agostino di Duccio left us the Oratory of San Bernardino and Porta San Pietro in Perugia. In the Tempio della Consolazione in Todi one can see the influence of Bramante. Michele Sanmicheli worked in Orvieto, Vignola in Norcia and Giovanni Domenico Bianchi in Palazzo Cesi at Acquasparta.
By this time in its history, as a result of events, Umbria had assumed the features which are evident today.
Pressure from other groups, such as the Sabines to the south, the Picenes to the east, the Etruscans and the Galli Senoni who settled to the north of the Tevere in the so-called "Ager Gallicus", forced the Umbrians to reduce their domain. The few documents which have been preserved, including the writings of the Greek historian and geographer Strabone, allow us to reconstruct an image of an advanced civilisation which was strongly influenced by its powerful Etruscan neighbours. The area was organised into autonomous city states, probably forming a federation between them. Similar conclusions have been deduced from the most important document of Umbrian civilisation, the "Tavole Eugubine" - the Gubbio Tablets. These seven bronze plates, dating from the 3rd to the 1st century B.C., describe ceremonies and holy rites written half using the Etruscan alphabet and half using the Latin alphabet. Found in Gubbio they are preserved in Palazzo dei Consoli. The Etruscans were present on a large scale in many parts of Umbria to the right of the Tevere. In Perugia it is possible to follow an authentic Etruscan itinerary by way of the underground tombs of the Volumni, San Manno and that of the Cutu. Orvieto has been identified as the ancient Etruscan settlement of Volsinii. The remains found in the town and in the nearby burial chambers are preserved in the Claudio Faina Foundation Museum and in the Museum of the Works of the Cathedral (Opera del Duomo). Umbrian civilisation began an inexorable decline when it came in contact with Rome. At first some cities, such as Otricoli, tried forming an alliance.
Others joined the coalition between the Sannites, the Galli Senoni and the Etruscans, only to be defeated by the Romans at the decisive battle of Sentino in 295 B.C. In the end Rome brought within its sphere of control all the towns of Umbria by creating settlements at Narni (299), Sena Gallica (283), Ariminum (268), Aesis (247), and Spoleto of the Cathedral (Opera del Duomo). Umbrian civilisation began an inexorable decline when it came in contact with Rome. At first some cities, such as Otricoli, tried forming an alliance. Others joined the coalition between the Sannites, the Galli Senoni and the Etruscans, only to be defeated by the Romans at the decisive battle of Sentino in 295 B.C. In the end Rome brought within its sphere of control all the towns of Umbria by creating settlements at Narni (299), Sena Gallica (283), Ariminum (268), Aesis (247), and Spoleto (241). The alliance was sealed with the creation of great public works such as Via Flaminia (220) which joined Rome with Ariminum and the upper Adriatic, and the concession to the Umbrians in 90 B.C. of Roman citizenship. There are many remains which bear witness to the Roman period: in Perugia, Assisi, Foligno, Gubbio, Todi, Spoleto, Narni, and Terni as well as other minor centres around Sangemini such as Bevagna, Spello, Collemancio (Urvinum Hortense), and Carsulae. There are also numerous Roman villas scattered over the whole region including that of Pliny the Younger, near Città di Castello. Christianity found fertile terrain here. As early as the 6th century A.D. 21 dioceses were established. At a time when the whole peninsula was being overrun and ravaged by barbarian hordes, these became a focal point for the local population. This was the starting point for the construction of the first religious buildings. The church of Sant'Angelo was built in Perugia between the 5th and the 6th century; the Abbey of San Pietro in Valle near Ferentillo was built in the 8th century whilst the small basilica of Sant'Eufemia took form in Spoleto from the 10th to 11th century.
These were very confused years. Barbarians and Byzantines were in contention for possession of the peninsula. The result was the devastation of Umbria amidst bloody encounters and outbreaks of disease and the consequent impoverishment of the economy. From the vacuum which arose in civic power emerged the bishops who came to be recognised as the natural religious and civil heads of the population. In 552, after the terrible Gothic War, Umbria became once again a Byzantine possession but, before the region could recover from the havoc wreaked in the ferocious clash, a new wave of Germanic barbarians - the Longobards - engulfed central Italy. The Longobard conquest brought a radical change in the power axis, introducing stability in the form of the Duchy of Spoleto in 571. The Byzantines kept possession of the road linking Rome to the exarchate of Ravenna thanks to a narrow corridor formed by Amelia, Narni, Todi, Bettona, Perugia and Gubbio, and bending to the west via Orte, Orvieto, Chiusi and Cortona. The system of defence was centred on Perugia which was also in Byzantine hands. The Longobards more than once attempted to invade these towns but without sucess.
This political situation meant that the Longobard Duchy of Spoleto, encapsulated in the heart of Byzantine Italy, developed power and auto-nomy which allowed it to survive even after the decline of Longobard rule.
With the donations of Pippin the Short and Charlemagne, the Umbro-Byzantine territories and the Duchy of Spoleto became possessions of the church. At this time, however, the Papacy was not able to keep their urge for independence in check and it was only with the fall of the empire of Charlemagne that the papal authorities were consolidated and the Church vindicated its claim on Umbria. Despite this the main cities in the region became independent city-republics at the beginning of 11th century.
After the turn of the millennium the whole of western Europe flourished. Umbria was caught up in these developments. Perugia, for example, was already run by consuls and fully independent administratively in 1139; Orvieto boasted municipal institutions from 1137 and twenty years later recognition was gained from Pope Adriano IV.
As well as Perugia, Orvieto, Spoleto, Norcia, Terni, Narni, Todi, Gubbio and Città di Castello, smaller centres such as Amelia, Spello, Cascia, Montefalco and Gualdo Tadino were involved. These communes were also caught up in the struggle between the Ghibellines and the Guelphs. Between those who supported the Pope against the empire and those who supported the limiting effect of the empire on the political power of the Papacy, emerged new classes of merchants and artisans in opposition to the feudal nobility. This flowering of the city-republics was expressed in a true population explosion. Markets and fairs sprang up with an increase in commerce and the proclamation of new statutes and by-laws. This was accompanied by architectural undertakings.
In Perugia the Fontana Maggiore (Great Fountain), also known as Fontana della Piazza, was built. Designed by Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, technical contributions were made by Brother Bevignate of Perugia whilst the hydraulics were the work of Boninsegna Veneziano. In Spoleto the church of San Gregorio Maggiore was built in 1146. Also built here were the churches of San Paolo inter vineas, San Pietro (enlarged in the 13th century and rebuilt on an old 5th century church) after a fire in 1393 and the Romanesque Duomo, or chathedral.
Dedicated to San salvatore, it was consecrated in 1198 on the site of the ancient cathedral destroyed by Barbarossa in 115. In Bevagna the churches of San Silvestro and San Michele Arcangelo were erected whilst in Foligno the fade of the Duomo was built in 1133, the work of Maestro Atto. Also beloning to this period in which the communes and romanesque architecture flourished are the churches of Santa Maria Assunta in Lugnano in Teverina; San Felice in Narni; the Abbey of Sant'Eustizio in Preci, near Norcia, built by Maestro Pietro (1145) and dedicated to San Giovenale; various churches in Orvieto - San Francesco, San Domenico, Santa Maria dei Servi and San Giovannino. The cathedral in Assisi dedicated to San Rufino must also be mentioned. Its interior is the work of Giovanni da Gubbio. Noteworthy too are the belltower and the cloister of the older abbey of San Pietro in Valle, near Ferentillo. Umbria was thus fragmented into many municipalities, united in a strong spiritual current generated by the religious movements. Already in the 6th century a number of Benedictine monasteries had been established over the whole region and had been lively cultural centres. To be noted are the abbeys of: San Pietro in Valle near Ferentillo; Sant'Eustizio near Norcia; Santa Maria di Valdiponte at Montelabbate, Perugia; Sassovivo in Foligno; Petroia in Città di Castello; San Benedetto on Mount Subasio; San Salvatore on Mount Corona.
In the 13th century Umbria became the centre St. Frances's and Santa Chiara's preachings. One of the highest expressions of religious vitality of the region is to be found in the basilica of St. Francis of Assisi. Begun in 1228, it contains a true anthology of Umbro-Sienese painting from the 13th and 14th centuries.
Another important religious building, the Duomo of Orvieto, is considered one of the best examples of Gothic architecture in Italy. It was consecrated "all'Assunta" and erected to celebrate the miracle of Bolsena.
Designed possibly by Arnolfo di Cambio, the work was carried out by Brother Bevignate of Perugia and Giovanni di Uguccione whilst Lorenzo Maitani was the author of the facade.
In the 14th century, lordships appeared: the Trinci family in Foligno, the Monaldeschis in Orvieto, the Gabrielli family in Gubbio, the Atti in Todi, Vitelli in Città di Castello followed by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Ladislao di Durazzo, Braccio Fortebraccio da Montone and the Baglioni family of Perugia. Despite this, Umbria entered once and for all into the Papal State. Whilst on a political level the region was in decline, it nonetheless remained one of the liveliest centres in Italy spiritually and culturally with its monasteries, the University of Perugia (recognised officially by Clemente V in 1308) and its great painting school. The latter touched thehighest peaks of Renaissance art represented with Pinturicchio and Perugino. From the 15th century to the end of the 18th century Umbria remained marginal to Italian history. Its cities were often troubled by internal struggles as in the case of perugia, where at times the noble families of Oddi and Baglioni were the cause of bloody battles and rebellions against the roman power. In 1540 the so-called Salt War occurred.